From Nigeria’s inception in 1914 until the end of colonial rule, agriculture served as the primary revenue generator. Between 1914 and 1959, Nigeria gained recognition for its agricultural exports, including cocoa from the west, groundnuts and cotton from the north, and palm oil from the east, including the Niger Delta region.
In the early 1960s, oil revenue accounted for less than 10% of Nigeria’s income. By 2005, the Oil and Gas Journal estimated Nigeria’s oil reserves at 35.2 billion barrels. In February of that year, Nigeria awarded five oil blocks in the Joint Development Zone (JDZ), which it shared with neighboring areas such as Sao Tome and Principe. At that time, the JDZ held reserves of 11 billion barrels, capable of yielding up to 3 million barrels per day.
Nigeria also possessed an estimated 176 trillion cubic feet of proven natural gas reserves, making it one of the top ten natural gas-endowed countries globally and the largest in Africa. With over 200 trillion cubic feet (TCF) of proven gas reserves, Nigeria boasts the continent’s largest gas deposits and is presently its primary liquefied natural gas exporter.
The principal aim of this research is to analyze policy challenges affecting the enforcement of environmental regulations intended to mitigate the adverse effects of oil exploration in Nigeria and their implications for achieving universal environmental quality.
Both multinational and local oil exploration companies present social, health, and economic challenges to society, but appropriate policies can empower society to address these challenges effectively.
Structure of the Oil and Gas Industry
The oil industry primarily operates within the offshore and onshore regions of the Niger Delta. It is commonly categorized into two main sectors: the upstream and downstream sectors.
The upstream sector involves exploration activities conducted at oil wells, including prospecting, production, and oil transportation. In simpler terms, this encompasses the search for commercially viable oil deposits, the extraction of discovered oil, and the transportation of unrefined crude oil to refineries.
On the other hand, the downstream sector is the crucial stage where crude oil undergoes refining to produce various products such as petrol, diesel, and kerosene. This stage is pivotal as it represents the transformation of crude oil into its most valuable forms, making oil exploration a highly profitable venture. Following refinement, the products are distributed to customers via pipelines, sea routes, and rail tankers. However, these activities have detrimental effects on the flora and fauna of oil-rich regions.
Consequences of Inadequate Environmental Management Resulting from Oil Exploration in Nigeria
Transboundary Pollution
Transboundary pollution refers to the contamination originating in one country and crossing borders into neighboring countries via air or water. This type of pollution can lead to various damages, illnesses, and disturbances in the affected areas.
Addressing transboundary pollution requires international cooperation, along with increased awareness and deliberate efforts by both citizens and entities responsible for the pollution.
The pollution stemming from activities in the Niger Delta is among the most severe cases globally. Characterized by a humid, semi-hot equatorial climate, the Niger Delta experiences relatively stable temperatures throughout the year. The average temperature ranges from approximately 28 degrees Celsius (82.4 degrees Fahrenheit) in the hottest month to 26 degrees Celsius (78 degrees Fahrenheit) in the coolest month, with minimal fluctuations of around 2 degrees Celsius (5 degrees Fahrenheit).
The region receives consistent rainfall almost year-round, resulting in frequent flooding, particularly in urban areas. The predominance of silt and clay in the soil exacerbates the situation, causing saturation and reduced soil quality, leading to runoff.
These transboundary pollutants have now accumulated in Rivers State, particularly in Port Harcourt, manifesting as black soot residue. This pollution significantly impacts the local atmosphere, posing challenges to respiratory health and creating discomfort for residents as it settles on surfaces and clothing.
Similar incidents, such as the 1988 Koko incident involving the dumping of toxic waste, have resulted in comparable environmental and health effects, echoing the consequences of gas flaring and illegal oil bunkering in the Niger Delta and certain regions of Rivers State.
Corrosive Effects on Materials and Cultural Artifacts
The acidic rainfall prevalent in the Niger Delta accelerates the corrosion process of metal oil pipe casings, which are essential for transporting oil to various destinations. As these metals corrode, they release pollutants into the atmosphere, thus compromising air quality and posing health risks to inhabitants.
This scenario draws parallels with the Minamata case of 1956 in Japan, where methyl mercury contamination in water resulted in fatalities among citizens.
The corrosion of metal pipes and their casings in water not only jeopardizes human health but also threatens the existence of other organisms, thereby diminishing biodiversity and disrupting animal migration patterns. This depletion of organisms, particularly fish and game, disrupts the livelihoods of local residents who rely on fishing and hunting activities.
Additionally, the deterioration of the environment’s health prompts residents to flee, often leaving them without the means or resources to relocate, leading to dire life-or-death situations.
Oil Spillage in Nigeria (Data Analysis from 1990-2021)
In recent times, a total of 881 instances of oil spills have been documented between January 2019 and April 2021, occurring across 12 states within Nigeria, according to data obtained from the government-operated satellite tracker, NOSDRA.
Notably, 77 percent of these spills were concentrated in just three oil-producing states. The cumulative oil spillage during this period amounted to approximately 43,000 barrels of oil, valued at $3 million in the international market and 1.23 billion naira in the national market. It is important to note that these figures are dynamic as new spills continue to occur regularly. Rivers State recorded the highest number of spills at 352, followed by Delta State with 233 spills and Bayelsa State with 89 spills, totaling 674 spills overall.
In terms of the volume of oil spilled, Rivers state accounted for the loss of about 26,268 barrels, while Bayelsa State and Delta State lost 1,219 barrels and 9,134 barrels, respectively.
Oil spills result in various health, environmental, and socio-economic challenges, posing a significant threat to ecosystems and livelihoods. Oil spillage often occurs due to poorly constructed or maintained infrastructure, theft, vandalism, accidents resulting from negligence, or other factors.
Despite such incidents, there is a notable lack of successful clean-up efforts by some responsible companies. Historical data from the 1970s onwards indicates a decreasing trend in the average annual number of spills, declining from 79% to 50% by 2010.
Many of these spills, identified by NOSDRA, were attributed to oil theft and exploration sabotage, commonly known as oil bunkering. The repercussions of oil theft extend beyond environmental damage, with regions like Rivers State experiencing airborne transboundary pollution, or “soot,” infiltrating urban areas and neighboring villages.
This criminal activity not only affects the integrity of the nation’s pipeline infrastructure but also poses a significant economic and environmental burden, with 3,342 pipeline points reported vandalized across Nigeria from October 2018 to September 2020. The cost of pipeline repairs alone amounted to 15 billion naira from January.
Factors that Encourage Oil Spills
Oil bunkering has emerged as a highly profitable activity in this region due to several factors, including poverty, lack of job opportunities, and a pervasive “get rich quick” mentality. These reasons predominantly stem from host communities, which are often implicated in causing oil spills. The primary triggers of oil spills include operational negligence by companies and theft.
It is imperative for identified oil spills to be promptly reported, as per legal requirements. However, the effective implementation of the “polluter pays” principle has been hindered, as parties involved may withhold information to evade responsibility and misappropriate funds allocated for clean-up efforts. This corrupt practice perpetuates an unhealthy and degraded environment within host communities and the wider state.
Conversely, host communities have been reported to obstruct environmental repair and maintenance activities conducted by oil spill clean-up teams. These teams aim to restore affected environments to their pre-polluted state, enhancing safety and habitability. Such behavior from host communities has fostered distrust and disillusionment among oil companies striving to fulfill their responsibilities and conduct clean-ups effectively.
Management of Oil Spills
Oil spill incidents in the Niger Delta are unfortunately common occurrences. Various methods can be employed for oil clean up if appropriate equipment and technologies are available.
Bioremediation
Bioremediation involves the removal of spilled oil under specific geographic and climatic conditions. Typically, this method follows routine mechanical cleanup activities on affected land and aims to completely eliminate hazardous waste by relocating it to a different area of the environment.
Mechanical Containment
Another method is Mechanical Containment, which involves various oil spill control mechanisms. This method utilizes tools such as booms, skimmers, and natural or synthetic sorbent materials. Booms are particularly effective for cleaning up oil spills in marine environments, designed for rapid response to spills as they occur. Skimmers work in tandem with booms to extract crude oil from the surface of water bodies.
Physical Cleanup
Physical cleanup methods can also be employed, involving natural processes like evaporation, oxidation, and biodegradation. Nigeria has traditionally relied on this method due to its simplicity and minimal financial investment requirements.
However, given the severity and extent of pollution in the Niger Delta, this approach tends to be slow, resulting in intensified environmental degradation before its effects become noticeable.
Remediation
A more comprehensive approach to cleanup is Remediation, which aims to reverse environmental damage by restoring polluted sites to their pre-polluted state. This involves removing affected soil, cleaning out hazardous waste, and then returning the soil to its original location.
Following these steps, the land undergoes inspection by relevant authorities and receives certification from government agencies to confirm proper cleanup efforts.
